Practical Field Ecology
A Project Guide
2. Edition July 2020
464 Pages, Softcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
Offers a comprehensive, accessible introduction to experimental design, field monitoring skills for plants and animals, data analysis, interpretation and reporting
This user-friendly book presents field monitoring skills for both plants and animals, within the context of a research project. This text provides a single resource to take the reader all the way through from the planning stage, into the field, guiding through sampling, organism identification, computer-based data analysis and interpretation, and finally how to present the results to maximise the impact of the work. Logically structured throughout, and revised extensively in the second edition, the book concentrates on the techniques required to design a field-based ecological survey and shows how to execute an appropriate sampling regime. It evaluates appropriate sampling and analytical methods, identifying potential problems associated with various techniques and how to mitigate these.
The second edition of this popular text has updated reference material and weblinks, increased the number of case studies by 50% to illustrate the use of specific techniques in the field, added over 20% more figures (including 8 colour plates), and made more extensive use of footnotes to provide extra details. Extensions to topics covered in the first edition include additional discussion of: ethical issues; statistical methods (sample size estimation, use of the statistical package R, mixed models); bioindicators, especially for freshwater pollution; seeds, fecundity and population dynamics including static and dynamic life tables; forestry techniques including tree coring and tree mortality calculations; the use of data repositories; writing for a journal and producing poster and oral presentations. In addition, the use of new and emerging technologies has been a particular focus, including mobile apps for environmental monitoring and identification; land cover and GIS; the use of drones including legal frameworks and codes of practice; molecular field techniques including DNA analysis in the field (including eDNA); photo-matching for identifying individuals; camera trapping; modern techniques for detecting and analysing bat echolocation calls; and data storage using the cloud.
Divided into six distinct chapters, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition begins at project inception with a chapter on planning--covering health and safety, along with guidance on how to ensure that the sampling and experimental design is suitable for subsequent statistical analysis. Following a chapter dealing with site characterisation and general aspects of species identification, subsequent chapters describe the techniques used to survey and census particular groups of organisms. The final chapters cover analysing, interpreting and presenting data, and writing up the research.
* Offers a readable and approachable integrated guide devoted to field-based research projects
* Takes students from the planning stage, into the field, and clearly guides them through organism identification in the laboratory and computer-based data analysis, interpretation and data presentation
* Includes a chapter on how to write project reports and present findings in a variety of formats to differing audiences
Aimed at undergraduates taking courses in Ecology, Biology, Geography, and Environmental Science, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition will also benefit postgraduates seeking to support their projects.
List of Figures xv
List of Boxes xxi
List of Case Studies xxiii
List of Plates xxv
Preface to the Second Edition xxvii
Preface to the First Edition xxix
Acknowledgements xxxi
About the Companion Website xxxv
1 Preparation 1
Choosing a topic for study 2
Ecological research questions 4
Monitoring individual species and groups of species 4
Monitoring species richness 5
Monitoring population sizes and density 5
Monitoring community structure 6
Monitoring behaviour 6
A note of caution 6
Creating aims, objectives, and hypotheses 9
Reviewing the literature 9
Primary literature 10
Secondary literature 10
Other sources of information 11
Search terms 11
Reading papers 12
Practical considerations 12
Legal aspects 13
Ethical issues 13
Health and safety issues 14
Implementation 16
Equipment and technical support 19
Field/laboratory notebook 19
Pilot studies 21
Time management 22
Statistical considerations in project design 24
Designing and setting up experiments and surveys 26
Choosing sampling methods 26
Types of data 27
Sampling designs 29
Planning statistical analysis 35
Describing data 35
Asking questions about data 36
Predictive analysis 37
Multivariate analysis 38
Examining patterns and structure in communities 39
Summary 39
2 Monitoring Site Characteristics 43
Site selection 43
Site characterisation 44
Habitat mapping 44
Examination of landscape scale 54
Measuring microclimatic variables 55
Monitoring substrates 60
Monitoring water 64
Other physical attributes 67
Measuring biological attributes 70
Identification 76
3 Sampling Plants and Other Static Organisms 85
Sampling for static organisms 88
Seeds, fecundity, and population dynamics 91
Quadrat sampling 92
Density estimation using quadrats 95
Frequency estimation using quadrats 95
Cover estimation using quadrats 96
Biomass estimation within quadrats 97
Quadrat size 99
Nested quadrats 100
Placement of quadrats 101
Quadrat shape 102
Pin-frames 103
Transects 104
Plotless sampling 106
Distribution of static organisms 109
Forestry techniques 110
Tree diameter 110
Tree basal area 113
Height of trees 113
Timber volume 114
Growth 114
Canopy cover 115
Age and mortality 115
4 Sampling Mobile Organisms 119
General issues 120
Distribution of mobile organisms 123
Direct observation 124
Behaviour 124
Indirect methods 130
Capture techniques 130
Marking individuals 133
Radio-Tracking 136
Population dynamics 138
Invertebrates 140
Direct observation 141
Butterfly census method 141
Indirect methods 143
Using insect sounds 143
Capture techniques 144
Killing and preserving invertebrates 145
Marking individuals 145
Capturing aquatic invertebrates 150
Netting 152
Suction sampling 156
Benthic coring 156
Drags, dredges, and grabs 157
Wet extraction 158
Artificial substrate samplers 159
Baited traps and refuges 159
Capturing soil-living invertebrates 161
Sieving 161
Floatation and phase-separation 161
Tullgren funnels and similar methods of dry extraction 162
Chemical extraction 164
Electrical extraction 166
Capturing ground-active invertebrates 167
Pitfall traps 167
Suction samplers 175
Emergence traps 178
Capturing invertebrates from plants 180
Pootering 182
Sweep netting 184
Beating 185
Fogging 185
Capturing airborne invertebrates 187
Sticky traps 190
Using attractants 191
Refuges 194
Flight interception traps 195
Light traps 197
Rotary traps 205
Water (pan) traps 206
Fish 208
Direct observation 210
Indirect methods 211
Capture techniques 211
Nets and traps 212
Collecting fish larvae 215
Electrofishing 215
Marking individuals 215
Amphibians 218
Direct observation 221
Indirect methods 221
Counting egg masses 221
Using environmental DNA (eDNA) 222
Capture techniques 222
Sampling adults in water 223
Sampling adults on land 224
Tadpoles 226
Juveniles/metamorphs 226
Marking individuals 226
Reptiles 228
Direct observation 228
Indirect methods 229
Capture techniques 230
Hand-capture 232
Traps 233
Marking individuals 235
Birds 236
Direct observation 237
Timed species count 239
Common bird census/breeding bird survey 240
Point counts 241
Transect line counts 242
Distance sampling 242
Flush counts 244
Indirect methods 245
Counting nests at a distance 246
Bird song 247
Capture techniques 247
Mist netting 248
Propelled nets 250
Marking individuals 250
Mammals 253
Direct observation 254
Indirect methods 257
Capture techniques 264
Marking individuals 272
5 Analysing and Interpreting Information 275
Keys to tests 278
Exploring and describing data 285
Transforming and screening data 285
Graphical display of data 288
Measures of central tendency and sample variability 290
Spatial and temporal distributions 292
Population estimation techniques: densities and population sizes 292
Richness and diversity 297
Similarity, dissimilarity, and distance coefficients 297
Recording descriptive statistics 300
Testing hypotheses using basic statistical tests and simple general linear models 301
Differences between samples 304
Relationships between variables 307
Associations between frequency distributions 312
More advanced general linear models for predictive analysis 314
Multiple regression 314
Analysis of covariance and multivariate analysis of variance 316
Discriminant function analysis 318
Generalized linear models 319
Extensions of the generalized linear model 323
Extensions of generalized linear models and GAMs into mixed-effects models 324
Statistical methods to examine pattern and structure in communities: classification, indicator species, and ordination 325
Classification 325
Classification techniques when the number of groups is known 326
Significance testing for group membership: analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) 328
Classification techniques when the number of groups is unknown 329
Indicator species analysis 331
Ordination 332
Indirect gradient analysis 333
Comparing ordinations and matrix data 338
Direct gradient analysis 339
6 Presenting Information 343
Written reports 344
Title 345
Abstract 345
Acknowledgements 346
Contents 346
Introduction 347
Methods 347
Results 348
Illustrations (Tables, Figures, Plates, Equations, etc.) 349
Discussion 354
References 354
Citing papers 355
Appendices 358
Archiving data 359
Authors' contributions 359
Writing style 359
Tense 362
Passive tense 362
Numbers 362
Abbreviations 363
Punctuation 364
Choice of font 365
Common mistakes 366
Computer files 368
Specific guidance for writing for a journal 368
Specific guidance for preparing a poster 371
Specific guidance for preparing an oral presentation 376
Summary 379
Appendix 1 Glossary of Statistical Terms 381
References 387
Index 409
PENNY A. COOK, PHD, is Professor in Public Health at the University of Salford, UK. She teaches statistical analysis, is a Statistical Editor of a peer-reviewed journal, and has published on greenspace, biodiversity and health and well-being, as well as on behavior and evolutionary ecology.
JAMES R. BELL, PHD, is Head of the Rothamsted Insect Survey, Rothamsted Research, UK. He has published widely on insect migration, climate change impacts on insects and the ecology of invertebrates. He has an interest in the analysis of large data sets as well as surveillance and monitoring technologies.
